Power system with power converters having an adaptive controller

ABSTRACT

A power system having a power converter with an adaptive controller. In one embodiment, a power converter coupled to a load includes a power switch configured to conduct for a duty cycle to provide an output characteristic at an output thereof. The power converter also includes a power converter controller configured to receive a signal from the load indicating a system operational state of the load and enable a power converter topological state as a function of the signal.

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/051,334, entitled “Power System with Power Converters having an Adaptive Controller,” filed on Mar. 19, 2008 (now, U.S. Pat. No. 7,667,986), which is a continuation in part of, and claims priority to, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/710,276, entitled “Power System with Power Converters having an Adaptive Controller,” filed on Feb. 23, 2007 (now, U.S. Pat. No. 7,675,759), which is a continuation in part of, and claims priority to, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/607,325, entitled “Power Converter with an Adaptive Controller and Method of Operating the Same,” filed on Dec. 1, 2006 (now, U.S. Pat. No. 7,675,758). The aforementioned applications are incorporated herein by reference.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application relates to the following co-pending and commonly assigned patent applications, which applications are incorporated herein by reference:

Patent Numbers Serial or Publication Number Numbers Title 11/349,637 7,417,875 Power Converter Employing Integrated Magnetics with a Current Multiplier Rectifier and Method of Operating the Same 11/361,742 7,176,662 Power Converter Employing a Tapped Inductor and Integrated Magnetics and Method of Operating the Same 11/655,334 7,298,118 Power Converter Employing a Tapped Inductor and Integrated Magnetics and Method of Operating the Same 11/942,632 2008/0150666 Power Converter Employing a Tapped Inductor and Integrated Magnetics and Method of Operating the Same 11/361,914 7,385,375 Control Circuit for a Depletion Mode Switch and Method of Operating the Same 11/093,592 7,439,556 Substrate Driven Field-Effect Transistor 11/094,632 7,439,557 Semiconductor Device Having a Lateral Channel and Contacts on Opposing Surfaces Thereof 11/711,340 2007/0145417 High Voltage Semiconductor Device Having a Lateral Channel and Enhanced Gate-to-Drain Separation 11/128,623 7,339,208 Semiconductor Device Having Multiple Lateral Channels and Method of Forming the Same 11/211,964 7,285,807 Semiconductor Device Having Substrate-Driven Field-Effect Transistor and Schottky Diode and Method of Forming the Same 11/236,376 7,462,891 Semiconductor Device Having an Interconnect with Sloped Walls and Method of Forming the Same 11/765,252 2007/0298559 Vertical Field-Effect Transistor and Method of Forming the Same 11/765,323 7,663,183 Vertical Field-Effect Transistor and Method of Forming the Same 11/765,324 7,541,640 Vertical Field-Effect Transistor and Method of Forming the Same 11/847,450 2008/0054874 Power Converter Employing Regulators with a Coupled Inductor 11/607,325 7,675,758 Power Converter with an Adaptive Controller and Method of Controlling the Same 11/710,276 7,675,759 Power System with Power Converters Having an Adaptive Controller 11/955,627 2008/0316779 System and Method for Estimating Input Power for a Power Processing Circuit 11/955,642 2008/0315852 System and Method for Estimating Input Power for a Power Processing Circuit 10/922,062 7,012,414 Vertically Packaged Switched-Mode Power Converter 10/922,064 7,427,910 Winding Structure for Efficient Switch-Mode Power Converters 10/126,477 6,873,237 Core Structure 10/837,552 7,431,862 Synthesis of Magnetic, Dielectric or Phosphorescent Nano Composites 10/302,095 7,046,523 Core Structure and Interleaved DC-DC Converter Topology 10/080,142 6,549,436 Integrated Magnetic Converter Circuit and Method with Improved Filtering 10/080,026 6,775,159 Switching Power Converter Circuits Providing Main and Auxiliary Output Voltages 10/922,066 7,321,283 Vertical Winding Structures for Planar Magnetic Switched-Mode Power Converters 10/922,068 6,980,077 Composite Magnetic Core for Switch- Mode Power Converters 10/922,067 7,280,026 Extended E Matrix Integrated Magnetics (MIM) Core

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention is directed, in general, to electronic power conversion and, more specifically, to a power system having power converters including a controller adapted to improve power conversion efficiency and method of operating the same.

BACKGROUND

A switch-mode power converter (also referred to as a “power converter”) is a power supply or power processing circuit that converts an input voltage waveform into a specified output voltage waveform. Controllers associated with the power converters manage an operation thereof by controlling the conduction periods of power switches employed therein. Generally, the controllers are coupled between an input and output of the power converter in a feedback loop configuration.

Typically, the controller measures an internal operating characteristic (e.g., an internal bus voltage) or an output characteristic, (e.g., an output voltage or an output current) representing an operating condition of the power converter, and based thereon modifies a duty cycle of a power switch or power switches of the power converter to regulate the internal operating characteristic or the output characteristic. The duty cycle is a ratio represented by a conduction period of a power switch to a switching period thereof. Thus, if a power switch conducts for half of the switching period, the duty cycle for the power switch would be 0.5 (or 50 percent). Additionally, as the needs for systems such as a microprocessor powered by the power converter dynamically change (e.g., as a computational load on the microprocessor changes), the controller should be configured to dynamically increase or decrease the duty cycle of the power switches therein to regulate the internal or the output characteristic at a desired value. In an exemplary application, the power converters have the capability to convert an unregulated dc input voltage such as five volts to a lower, regulated, dc output voltage such as 2.5 volts to power a load. In another exemplary application, the power converters have the capability to convert an unregulated ac input voltage such as 120 volts to a regulated internal dc bus voltage, such as 300 volts dc, and to further convert the regulated internal dc bus voltage into a dc output voltage such as 2.5 volts to power a load.

An important consideration for the design of a power converter and its controller is the efficiency (also referred to as “operating efficiency”) in a particular application, and under particular operating conditions. The efficiency of a power converter is the ratio of its output power to its input power. The practical efficiency of a power converter that delivers at least half its rated output power to a load is typically 80 to 90%. As load current is reduced, the operating efficiency correspondingly goes down. In the limiting case wherein the load current approaches a small percentage of the maximum rated current of the power converter, the operating efficiency approaches zero due to the need to provide power for fixed internal loads such as the controller itself, for drivers, for internal high-frequency power switches, and for inherently dissipative circuit elements such as the magnetic core of a high-frequency transformer. Power converter efficiency is accordingly dependent on an internal operating characteristic of the power converter or an output characteristic thereof. Examples of an internal operating characteristic include a temperature of a component part, an internal bus voltage, the voltage level of a drive signal for a power switch, the number of paralleled power switches selectively enabled to conduct, the number of phases enabled on a power converter, or even the basic switching frequency of the power converter. Examples of an output characteristic include a load current drawn from the power converter and an output voltage. Power converter efficiency is also dependent on a parameter that may be measured after a manufacturing step, which may reflect a dependency of efficiency on particular parts used to manufacture the power converter in question.

Operating efficiency is an important quality indicator for a power converter because of the broad impact efficiency has on equipment reliability and size, operating expense, and corresponding effects on the load equipment that it powers. Thus, system considerations of achieving high operating efficiency have immediate effects on the applicability of a particular power converter design, and the associated price thereof in the marketplace.

Numerous prior art attempts have been made to improve the operating efficiency of a power converter. Most attempts have focused on selection of proper components to provide the maximum operating efficiency for average operating conditions at a chosen operating point, such as a load current at three quarters of a maximum rated value, the environmental temperature at a typical expected value, and for a typical mix of actual components employed to manufacture a particular power converter. Recognizing the wide range of possible values for any of these parameters, there is substantial opportunity to improve the efficiency of a power converter for a particular operating condition.

An example of the prior art to provide high power converter efficiency at a particular operating condition is provided in U.S. Pat. No. 6,351,396, entitled “Method and Apparatus for Dynamically Altering Operation of a Converter Device to Improve Conversion Efficiency,” to Jacobs, issued Feb. 26, 2002 which is incorporated herein by reference. Jacobs is directed to a search process that varies parameters accessible to the controller during power converter operation, such as a timing delay between conduction intervals of the power switches, and observes the resulting effect on the duty cycle. The duty cycle is employed as an indicator of operating efficiency, and parameters accessible to the controller are adjusted to produce an extremum in the duty cycle for a particular operating condition, thereby increasing the operating efficiency of the power converter. While Jacobs performs efficiency optimization under actual operating conditions, the reference nonetheless fails to consider constraints of the actual application (such as described in a requirements document or operating specification document) or the environment during execution of the process of efficiency optimization, or a signal from an external source to enable, limit, or alter the optimization process. For example, no attempt is made to measure a parameter of a particular power converter after a manufacturing step (or to measure a parameter of a representative power converter), or to control, program, or otherwise alter a response of the controller to reflect such measurement, such as by controlling an internal operating characteristic or an output characteristic.

Another attempt to adaptively operate a power converter to improve efficiency is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,742,491, entitled “Power Converter Adaptively Driven,” to Bowman, et al. (“Bowman”), issued Apr. 21, 1998, which is incorporated herein by reference. Bowman is directed to a drive circuit for a power converter wherein the timing of conduction intervals for the power switches is programmed to increase the efficiency of the power converter while keeping stresses on individual components within acceptable limits. A predetermined delay between drive waveforms supplied to the power switches and to the synchronous rectifiers of the power converter is altered with a predetermined program that is a function of an operating condition of the power converter to allow the power converter to operate efficiently in an anticipated operating environment and with anticipated component realizations. A design objective is to desensitize the operating efficiency to an expected range of changes in the operating environment and with an anticipated range of component realizations, which results in a compromise in a static program to optimize efficiency that might otherwise be achievable with the design of an improved controller not so limited. Bowman relies on a limited set of a priori conditions, and does not adjust controller parameters in response to a measured power converter parameter for the particular power converter after a manufacturing step, or to a measured parameter of a representative power converter (e.g., from a group of manufactured units), or in response to a signal from an external source representing an environmental parameter.

A further attempt to optimize power conversion efficiency is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,734,564, entitled “High-Efficiency Switching Power Converter,” to Brkovic, issued Mar. 31, 1998, which is incorporated herein by reference. Brkovic describes measuring an internal operating characteristic of a power train of the power converter (i.e., a voltage across a power switch) and adjusting a timing of a duty cycle for the power switch in response to the measured power switch voltage to improve power conversion efficiency. Brkovic provides a preconditioned response to a measured parameter of the particular power converter after a manufacturing step. Brkovic does not consider adapting or constraining the response to a signal from an external source representing an environmental parameter.

It is well known in the art to couple an input control signal to a power converter to control the setpoint of an output characteristic thereof. For example, the output voltage of a power converter adapted to supply power to a microprocessor load (wherein the operating voltage thereof is not known at the time of manufacture, or that is changed during normal operation such as when a microprocessor enters a sleep mode) can be statically or dynamically altered by an input control signal. However, this control mechanism merely changes a setpoint for an output characteristic of the power converter, and is not adapted to optimize the efficiency of the power converter at the signaled setpoint.

It should also be taken into account that there are loads with different operating states. For example, a server configured to process financial data may operate at a higher level of criticality during normal business hours, and revert to a lower processing state at another time of day. The aforementioned system may require a higher level of performance from the power converter during such periods of high criticality, which may compromise operating efficiency, but which may admit higher operating efficiency during substantial periods of time in the lower processing state.

Power conversion systems of the prior art have only partially responded to such system operational state considerations in the optimization of operating efficiency, particularly at a system level. For example, the Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (“ACPI”) specification is an open industry standard initially produced in December 1996 that describes “P-states” and “C-states” of a processor employed in a digital system, and which is incorporated herein by reference. The P-state, typically designated as P-states P0, P1, and P2, describes the “performance” state (or, alternatively, the “power” state) of the processor as high, medium, or low, respectively, for example, as described by Alon Naveh, et al., in the article entitled “Power and Thermal Management in the Intel® Core Duo™ Processor, Intel Technology Journal, May 15, 2006, pp. 109-121, which is incorporated herein by reference. The P-state is selected by the software operating system to meet the execution needs of the software load as observed over a period of time. A particular P-state is affected by setting, from a set of predetermined values from a list, the core input voltage of the processor and its clock rate. The processor core input voltage is adjusted by sending a digital signal such as a “VID” code to the processor's point-of-load voltage source. A processor operating at a lower core voltage and with a slower clock operates at a substantially lower power level.

Another processor state indicator, the core state (“C-state”), also under software operating system control, affects its level of power consumption from another perspective. The highest processor C-state, C0, describes a processor at its full operational level. Lower C-state levels, C1, C2, . . . , C4, describe various levels of a processor sleep state. The C-state level C1 provides the minimum level of power saving, but provides the fastest response time back to the full operational level C-state level C0. The C-state level C4 provides a “deep sleep” level, but requires substantial time for the processor to return to normal operation. The various sleep levels are achieved by halting instruction execution, gating internal clocks, disabling internal phase-locked loops, and disabling ports that respond to certain levels of interrupts. The minimum core voltage necessary to retain certain volatile memory elements is applied.

Although these state indicators have been used to substantially reduce the energy requirement of a digital system at the system level, particularly the power level during an idling state, corresponding states have not been described for elements of the power system as it responds to the various operational levels of the load, such as a request for a particular load voltage, or a particular level of system readiness, or the response time for changes in a system operational level. Accordingly, opportunities for further improvement in power converter operational efficiency have not been realized.

Thus, attempts have been made in the prior art to configure power converter controllers to statically optimize power conversion efficiency of a power train. The static responses have included varying an internal operating characteristic of the power converter with a fixed program in response to a measured characteristic such as a load current to improve power conversion efficiency, or in response to observed changes in power converter duty cycle. The aforementioned attempts to improve efficiency have been facilitated by inclusion of programmable digital devices such as microprocessors, digital signal processors, application specific integrated circuits, and field-programmable gate arrays in the controller. Nonetheless, the responses of a controller have not included consideration of a measured parameter after a manufacturing step for the particular power converter that is being controlled such as a measurement of an actual delay of a particular power switch or an internal circuit after completion of a stage of manufacture, or a signal indicating a system operational state.

Considering limitations as described above, a controller for a power converter is presently not available for the more severe applications that lie ahead that depend on achieving higher operating efficiency for a particular operating characteristic constrained or controlled by an environmental parameter. In addition, a controller for a power converter is presently not available that responds to a parameter measured after a manufacturing step for the particular power converter, or to a parameter measured after a manufacturing step on a representative power converter, or on power converters in a representative run, to improve the operating efficiency thereof. A controller for a power converter is also presently not available that responds to a signal indicating a system operational state to improve operating efficiency at a system level.

Accordingly, what is needed in the art is a controller for a power converter and power system that adaptively improves power conversion efficiency of a power converter in response to a measured parameter of the power converter after a manufacturing step, or to a parameter measured on a representative power converter, and includes consideration of operating conditions, a signal from an external source representing an environmental parameter or system operational state of a load coupled to the power system. In accordance therewith, a controller for a power converter and power system is provided that adaptively improves power conversion efficiency, including considerations as provided herein.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

These and other problems are generally solved or circumvented, and technical advantages are generally achieved, by advantageous embodiments of the present invention, which include a power system having a power converter with an adaptive controller and method of operating the same. In one embodiment, a power converter coupled to a load includes a power switch configured to conduct for a duty cycle to provide an output characteristic at an output thereof. The power converter also includes a power converter controller configured to receive a signal from the load indicating a system operational state of the load and enable a power converter topological state as a function of the signal.

In another embodiment, a power system includes a power system controller configured to provide a signal characterizing a power requirement of a processor system and a power converter coupled to the processor system. The power converter includes a power switch configured to conduct for a duty cycle to provide an output characteristic at an output thereof and a power converter controller configured to receive the signal from the power system controller to enter a power converter topological state dependent on the signal.

In another embodiment, a power system includes a power system controller configured to enable operation of components of a processor system to establish a state of power drain thereof and provide a signal to identify operation of the processor system in the state of power drain. The power system also includes a power converter, coupled to the processor system, including a power converter controller configured to receive the signal from the power system controller, to sense a power level of the state of power drain in response to the signal, and to control a power converter topological state as a function of the power level.

The foregoing has outlined rather broadly the features and technical advantages of the present invention in order that the detailed description of the invention that follows may be better understood. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be described hereinafter which form the subject of the claims of the invention. It should be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the conception and specific embodiment disclosed may be readily utilized as a basis for modifying or designing other structures or processes for carrying out the same purposes of the present invention. It should also be realized by those skilled in the art that such equivalent constructions do not depart from the spirit and scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

For a more complete understanding of the present invention, and the advantages thereof, reference is now made to the following descriptions taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which:

FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of a power converter controlled by a conventional controller;

FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic diagram of an exemplary power train of a buck power converter;

FIG. 3 illustrates a schematic diagram of an embodiment of a power converter including a controller constructed according to the principles of the present invention;

FIG. 4 illustrates exemplary waveform diagrams to control the conduction intervals of selected power switches of the power converter of FIG. 3 with an intervening delay therebetween;

FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate diagrams of exemplary multidimensional tables for the time delays for the control signals to control the conduction intervals of synchronous rectifier switches in accordance with a representative operating parameter of the power converter of FIG. 3;

FIG. 6 illustrates an embodiment of a functional representation to improve power conversion efficiency constructed according to the principles of the present invention;

FIG. 7 illustrates a block diagram of an embodiment of a power converter constructed according to the principles of the present invention;

FIG. 8 illustrates a block diagram of an embodiment of a power converter constructed according to the principles of the present invention;

FIGS. 9A to 9F illustrate the dependence of power converter efficiency on various operating parameters and the operating environment in accordance with the principles of the present invention;

FIG. 10 illustrates an ac input voltage waveform including an exemplary input line voltage dropout transient, showing time histories of possible internal bus voltages in accordance with the principles of the present invention;

FIG. 11 illustrates a block diagram of an embodiment of a power system coupled to loads and including power converters controlled by a power system controller constructed according to the principles of the present invention;

FIG. 12 illustrates a diagram of an embodiment of processor core states in accordance with the principles of the present invention;

FIG. 13 illustrates a state transition diagram for power converter operational states for a power converter constructed according to the principles of the present invention;

FIG. 14 illustrates a graphical representation of efficiency improvement as a function of power converter operational state for a representative power converter constructed according to the principles of the present invention;

FIG. 15 illustrates a graphical representation of power converter dissipation corresponding to the efficiency data illustrated in FIG. 14;

FIG. 16 illustrates a graphical representation of efficiency improvement as a function of power converter operational state for a representative power system including two power converters operating in parallel to provide a high level of power system reliability constructed according to the principles of the present invention; and

FIG. 17 illustrates a graphical representation of power converter dissipation corresponding to the efficiency data illustrated in FIG. 16.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS

The making and using of the presently preferred embodiments are discussed in detail below. It should be appreciated, however, that the present invention provides many applicable inventive concepts that can be embodied in a wide variety of specific contexts. The specific embodiments discussed are merely illustrative of specific ways to make and use the invention, and do not limit the scope of the invention.

The present invention will be described with respect to exemplary embodiments in a specific context, namely, a power system including power converters with a controller and, more particularly, a controller for a power converter that regulates an output characteristic of the power converter at an output thereof that adaptively controls an internal operating characteristic of the power converter to increase power conversion efficiency in response to a parameter of the power converter measured after a manufacturing step and/or an environmental parameter of the power converter. The parameters mentioned above are typically measured after the power converter(s) are implemented and/or after a signal is received from an external source representing an environmental parameter or a signal indicating a system operational state or a change in a system operational state. In addition, the controller may change a topological state of a power converter in response to a signal received from an external source. Examples of a topological state or changes thereto include, without limitation, a fully operational power converter, a number of paralleled synchronous rectifiers that are actively driven, a power factor-corrected front end for which active control is disabled but remains operational to maintain an internal bus voltage without active power factor control, disabling (or setting in a standby mode) one or more of a plurality of paralleled power converters when a high level of operational reliability is not required by the system, a power converter with reduced power factor control, and a power converter with at least one phase of power factor control disabled. The changes to the topological state of the power converter may improve an operating efficiency thereof as a function of a system operational state.

Regarding the environmental parameters, examples thereof include, without limitation, a signal indicating the existence of a paralleled power converter, the operational state of the paralleled power converter, that the powered system is operating from a backup power source, a request for a particular load voltage, an indication that a particular portion of the load has failed, or has been disabled, or is operating at a reduced power level. Further examples indicating a system operational state include, without limitation, a signal providing a performance state or a core state of a processor such as a P-state or C-state, indicating, for example, that the system is operating from emergency power or battery reserve, that redundant hardware such as a redundant power converter may have been disabled, that the system is not providing a critical function such as during an off-hours timeframe, that the system is sustaining substantial thermal margins allowing selected fans to be disabled and/or the fan speed to be substantially reduced, that the system is about to transition to a higher level of system performance, or that a requirement for a specified holdover time can be relaxed. An example of a signal indicating a change in a system operational state is a signal indicating that a load current will change from a first current level to a second current level at or around a particular time.

Additionally, the controller for a power converter according to the principles of the present invention can control, alter, relax, or differently constrain an internal operating characteristic (such as a gate drive voltage level, a switching frequency, an internal voltage or current, etc.) or an output characteristic (such as a regulated voltage setpoint of the power converter) to improve an efficiency thereof in response to signals from an external source representing an environmental parameter (such as the existence of a parallel-coupled power converter powering a common load) or in response to a signal indicating a system operational state. For example, the internal dc bus voltage of a power converter might be adaptively reduced to improve the power conversion efficiency of a front-end boost power converter, recognizing that such voltage reduction would directly affect the holdover capability of the power converter during periods of loss of ac input voltage (often referred to as line dropout, for example, as illustrated and described hereinbelow with reference to FIG. 10), which might be a required internal operating characteristic. Holdover capability is generally inversely proportional to the load on the power converter and would depend on the presence and operational state of a paralleled power converter.

The data from an external source representing an environmental parameter can be employed by an adaptive controller, for example, to reduce the internal dc bus voltage to a particular level above a lower voltage limit dependent on the measured power converter load and the external data, and thereby improve operating efficiency in view of an internal characteristic or an output characteristic, but constrained by a signal from an external source. Examples of a response to a signal indicating a system operational state include, without limitation, selectively disabling paralleled synchronous rectifiers during a sustained light load operating condition, disabling a power factor correction function in a boost power converter and relying on a peak-charging mechanism to sustain an internal bus voltage, configuring a power factor correction function in a boost power converter to operate at reduced power factor thereby improving efficiency, selectively disabling one or more phases of a multi-phase power converter such as a multi-phase boost power factor correction (“PFC”) power converter, or a multi phase implementation of a DC/DC power converter, disabling (or setting in a standby mode) a redundant power converter when such redundancy is not required for system operation, and selectively disabling and/or reducing the speed of power converter fans that may not be needed from a system operational consideration.

Referring initially to FIG. 1, illustrated is a block diagram of a power converter controlled by a conventional controller. The power converter includes a power train 105 coupled to a source of electrical power (represented by a battery, but may be other sources of power, such as ac power) for providing an input voltage V_(in) for the power converter. The power converter also includes a controller 110, and provides power to a system (not shown) such as a microprocessor coupled to an output thereof. The power train 105 may employ a buck topology as illustrated and described with respect to FIG. 2 below.

The power train 105 receives an input voltage V_(in) at an input thereof and provides a regulated output characteristic (e.g., an output voltage V_(out)) to power a microprocessor or other load coupled to an output of the power converter. The controller 110 is typically coupled to a voltage reference representing a desired characteristic such as a desired system voltage from an internal or external source associated with the microprocessor, and to the output voltage V_(out) of the power converter. In accordance with the aforementioned characteristics, the controller 110 provides a signal to control a duty cycle and a frequency of at least one power switch of the power train 105 to regulate the output voltage V_(out) or another characteristic thereof. Thus, the controller 110 for the power train 105 of a power converter, particularly a switch-mode power converter, generally measures an internal operating characteristic or an output characteristic of the power converter and controls a duty cycle of a power switch therein in response to the measured characteristic to regulate the internal operating characteristic or the output characteristic thereof.

A driver (not shown) may be interposed between the controller 110 and the power train 105 to provide a drive signal(s) for the power switch(es) with sufficient amplitude and with waveform characteristics to efficiently enable or disable conductivity of the power switch(es). In accordance with the aforementioned characteristics, a drive signal is provided by a driver to control a duty cycle and a frequency of one or more power switches of the power converter, preferably to regulate the output voltage V_(out) thereof. For a P-channel metal-oxide semiconductor power switch, a gate drive signal is typically driven negative (with respect to the source terminal) to turn on the power switch, and for an N-channel metal-oxide semiconductor power switch, a gate drive signal is typically driven positive (with respect to the source terminal) to turn on the power switch. A driver may employ techniques to provide sufficient signal delays to prevent shoot-through currents when controlling multiple power switches in a power converter.

Turning now to FIG. 2, illustrated is a schematic diagram of an exemplary power train of a buck power converter. The power train of the power converter receives an input voltage V_(in) (e.g., an unregulated input voltage) from a source of electrical power (represented by a battery) at an input thereof and provides a regulated output voltage V_(out) to power, for instance, a microprocessor at an output of the power converter. In keeping with the principles of a buck topology, the output voltage V_(out) is generally less than the input voltage V_(in) such that a switching operation of the power converter can regulate the output voltage V_(out). A main power switch Q_(main) is enabled to conduct by a gate drive signal D for a primary interval and couples the input voltage V_(in) to an output filter inductor L_(out). During the primary interval, an inductor current I_(Lout) flowing through the output filter inductor L_(out) increases as a current flows from the input to the output of the power train. An ac component of the inductor current I_(Lout) is filtered by an output capacitor C_(out).

During a complementary interval, the main power switch Q_(main) is transitioned to a non-conducting state and an auxiliary power switch Q_(aux) is enabled to conduct by a complementary gate drive signal 1-D. The auxiliary power switch Q_(aux) provides a path to maintain a continuity of the inductor current I_(Lout) flowing through the output filter inductor L_(out). During the complementary interval 1-D, the inductor current I_(Lout) through the output filter inductor L_(out) decreases. In general, the duty cycle of the main and auxiliary power switches Q_(main), Q_(aux) may be adjusted to maintain a regulation of the output voltage V_(out) of the power converter. Those skilled in the art understand that the conduction periods for the main and auxiliary power switches Q_(main), Q_(aux) may be separated by a small time interval to avoid cross conduction current therebetween and beneficially to reduce the switching losses associated with the power converter, where such time interval is ideally selected based on load, operating, and environmental conditions. Similarly, conduction periods for power switches that may be diodes may also be separated by a small time interval to avoid cross conduction current therebetween. Thus, the power train of a switch-mode power converter generally includes a plurality of power switches coupled to reactive circuit elements to provide the power conversion function therefore.

Turning now to FIG. 3, illustrated is a schematic diagram of an embodiment of a power converter including a controller 311 constructed according to the principles of the present invention. The power converter includes two exemplary power stages, namely, a first power stage 310 (e.g., a boost power stage possibly employed to perform power factor correction) and a second power stage (e.g., an isolating dc-to-dc power stage) 320. The input power source 301 to the first power stage 310 is an ac power source, which is coupled to a diode bridge rectifier 303. The first power stage 310, controlled by controller 311, produces an internal regulated bus voltage V_(bus) across a capacitor C₁, which provides the input voltage to the second power stage 320. The first power stage 310 includes boost power switch Q_(boost) and diode D₁, which alternately conduct to transfer charge from the input power source 301 through an inductor L₁ to the capacitor C₁. The controller 311 senses the rectified input voltage V_(in) and the internal bus voltage V_(bus) to control a duty cycle of the boost power switch Q_(boost), to regulate the bus voltage V_(bus) and to control the power factor of power drawn from the input power source 301.

The second power stage 320 includes isolation transformer TR and a power switch Q_(pri) in series with the primary winding thereof. Synchronous rectifier switches Q_(fwd), Q_(fly) are power switches coupled in series across a secondary winding of the isolation transformer TR to rectify the voltage therefrom, which winding voltage is coupled to an output filter including an output inductor L_(out) and an output capacitor C_(out). The controller 311 provides control signals (e.g., gate control signals) V_(Gfwd), V_(Gfly) to control the synchronous rectifier switches Q_(fwd), Q_(fly), respectively. A brief time delay ΔT between conduction intervals of the synchronous rectifier switches Q_(fwd), Q_(fly) is provided by the controller 311 to prevent cross conduction therebetween. In a preferred embodiment, the controller 311 selects the time delay ΔT dependent on operating conditions of the power converter as described hereinbelow to provide improved power conversion efficiency.

Turning now to FIG. 4, illustrated are exemplary waveform diagrams to control the conduction intervals of selected power switches of the power converter of FIG. 3 with an intervening delay therebetween. More specifically, FIG. 4 illustrates an example of a time delay ΔT between the gate control signals V_(Gfwd), V_(Gfly) to control the conduction intervals of the synchronous rectifier switches Q_(fwd), Q_(fly), respectively.

Returning now to the description of the power converter of FIG. 3, the output filter attenuates ac components present across the secondary winding of transformer TR to provide a substantially constant dc output voltage V_(out). The output voltage V_(out), as well as the load current I_(load) sensed by a sensor (e.g., a current sensing circuit element 315), is sensed by controller 311. Various circuit elements capable of sensing a load current, including a low resistance current-sensing resistor or a current-sensing transformer, are well known in the art and will not be described herein. Although the controller 311 is shown directly coupled to both sides of the isolation transformer TR, circuit elements to provide the necessary level of isolation for a controller 311 for a particular application are also well known in the art and will not be described herein. A thermistor (or other suitable thermal sensor) 313 provides a temperature measurement to the controller 311 at a selected point(s) in or about the power converter. Typical points for temperature sensing include a location adjacent to a power switch or to an isolation transformer, and may include the ambient temperature outside the power converter itself. Although one thermistor 313 is illustrated in FIG. 3, a plurality of thermistors may also be included within the scope of the invention to provide multiple temperature measurements to the controller 311. The detailed operation and characteristics of the first and second power stages 310, 320 are well known in the art, and will not be further described herein.

The controller 311 in the exemplary power converter illustrated in FIG. 3 senses and is responsive to the rectified input voltage V_(in), the internal bus voltage V_(bus), the power converter output voltage V_(out), the load current I_(load), as well as a signal “Temp” representing a temperature using the thermistor 313. In addition, the controller 311 senses and is responsive to an external signal V_(ext) indicating an environmental parameter from an external source such as a server powered by the power converter, and to a setup signal V_(setup) that may provide the result of a parameter measured in a test fixture after a manufacturing step to set or otherwise tailor parameters for the operation of the controller 311. In a preferred embodiment, the controller 311 includes digital processing capability at least comparable to that of a low-end microprocessor (or other digital implementations, such as a microcontroller, digital signal controller, digital signal processor, a field-programmable gate array, complex programmable logic device, or combinations thereof), and is operative to adaptively improve (e.g., optimize) the efficiency of the power converter from a variety of data and signal sources.

The controller 311 is configured to augment the operating efficiency of the power converter in response to a sensed or signaled internal operating characteristic and/or an output characteristic, a power converter parameter measured after a manufacturing step, and a signal from an external source representing an environmental parameter obtained from an external source such as a signal from a server being powered. Exemplary environmental parameters obtained from an external source, which reflect how the power converter is being used in an application, include a signal indicating parallel operation with a second power converter, an indication that a paralleled power converter has failed, an indication that the power converter is supporting a critical application requiring a modified trade-off between power conversion efficiency and reliability, and an indication that the system is operating from a back-up power source, and may signal, for example, a lower limit for a dc bus voltage, reflecting a modified need for power converter holdover to accommodate altered statistics for a transient power outage condition.

The controller 311 may also respond to a signal indicating a system operational state S_(op) _(—) _(state), which may be provided by a power system controller, which may be constructed as a component of the load (for example and without restriction, as a power system controller described hereinbelow with reference to FIG. 11). The responses may include altering a power converter topological state such as disabling a power factor correction function for the boost power switch Q_(boost) (e.g., a disable signal from the controller 311 to disable the boost power switch Q_(boost)), disabling a drive signal for synchronous rectifier switches Q_(fly), Q_(fwd), or disabling (or setting in a standby mode) a particular power converter because sufficient redundant or nonredundant operation can be sustained presently by the system. Further responses may include operating at a lower switching frequency because the system can tolerate a higher ripple voltage in view of a present system operational state or operating at a higher switching frequency, etc., because the system is about to enter a system state with a higher required level of system performance.

A system such as a personal computer, processor system or a server is often constructed with a number of system components such as memory, hard drives, and specialized circuit cards that are specified and installed when the system is assembled for a particular application. Thus, power system drains are generally unknown until such a system is specified and assembled. The rated power drain of installed power converters will generally be substantially greater than actual power drains of a system in a particular application, which provides an opportunity to optimize power conversion efficiency. Upon power-up of such a system, or during its continued operation, a power system controller can enable operation of its principal components to establish a state of maximum power drain (e.g., substantially a maximum level of power drain that must be supported by the power system). The power system controller can be configured to provide a signal to the power system to identify operation of the system in such a state of a maximum power drain. A power converter controller, such as controller 311, can be configured to receive the signal from the power system controller, and to sense a power level of the system operating in such a state of maximum power drain. The power converter controller can then control a power converter topological state as a function of the sensed maximum power level, including an appropriate margin as necessary. The power converter controller can be configured to control a duty cycle of a power switch, adjust a bus voltage, etc., in accordance with the sensed maximum power level. The power converter controller can also transmit a signal back to the power system controller identifying the sensed maximum power level so that the power system controller can select a system operational state dependent on the sensed maximum power level. Of course, a power level of a system can be sensed and signaled at other times during system operation, such as at a time when power drains are at a normal or reduced operating level. A signal from a power system controller signaling to a power converter controller an expected level of power drains can also be produced by the power system controller based on an inventory of installed components, rather than on an actual drain measurement.

The power converter controller, such as controller 311, may include a multidimensional table or other functional representation of a value to control an internal operating characteristic or an output characteristic of the power converter. Multidimensional inputs to such a table or other functional representation include signals representing an internal operating characteristic, an output operating characteristic, a power converter parameter measured after a manufacturing stage, a parameter measured on a representative power converter, and/or a signal representing an environmental parameter or a system operational state. There are references utilizing lookup tables and other multidimensional functional representations directed to automotive engine map and lookup table systems such as U.S. Pat. No. 5,925,088, entitled “Air-fuel Ratio Detecting Device and Method,” to Nasu, issued Jul. 20, 1999, U.S. Pat. No. 7,076,360, entitled “Auto-Ignition Timing Control and Calibration Method,” to Ma, issued Jul. 11, 2006, and U.S. Pat. No. 6,539,299, entitled “Apparatus and Method for Calibrating an Engine Management System,” to Chatfield, et al., issued Mar. 25, 2003, which are incorporated herein by reference.

Turning now to FIGS. 5A and 5B, illustrated are diagrams of exemplary multidimensional tables for the time delays ΔT (in nanoseconds) for the gate control signals V_(Gfwd), V_(Gfly) to control the conduction intervals of the synchronous rectifier switches Q_(fwd), Q_(fly), respectively, in accordance with a representative operating parameter of the power converter of FIG. 3. More specifically, FIG. 5A demonstrates the time delay ΔT with the input voltage V_(in) being below about 48 volts and FIG. 5B demonstrates the time delay ΔT with the input voltage V_(in) being above about 48 volts. The tables, listing delay in nanoseconds between opening a first power switch and closing a second power switch (e.g., the synchronous rectifier switches Q_(fwd), Q_(fly)) is accessed along a row with suitably quantized load current I_(load), and along a column with suitably quantized temperature. The entries in the table are obtained by experimentally varying switch delay in a test set after manufacture of the power converter, and observing the effect of various delays on power conversion efficiency. The tables reflect a range of different values of input voltage V_(in) measured for the particular power converter after a manufacturing stage. Of course, tables can be constructed with additional dimensions, accommodating additional parameters such as an output voltage V_(out), and internal bus voltage V_(bus), an input signal from an external source indicating an environmental parameter, etc., and finer levels of granularity. Various methods of interpolation between entries in the tables are well known in the art, and will not be described in the interest of brevity.

Such multidimensional tables can be used, for example, to control the switching frequency of a power converter. Switching frequency in the prior art is generally set as a design parameter, and is selected and fixed during a stage of design. The selected switching frequency is generally the result of a trade-off that considers, for example, the loss characteristics of the core material of the isolation transformer which depend on, without limitation, transformer core temperature, the primary-to-secondary turns ratio of the transformer, the expected thermal environment of the application, the heat transfer characteristics of the resulting power converter design, and the particular batch of core material from which the magnetic core thereof was formed. The resulting core loss for a particular power converter can also be substantially dependent on core characteristics such as a flux gap and core area of the particular core that was installed, all of which are substantially unknown before the power converter is manufactured.

In addition, the selected switching frequency is a result of consideration of other frequency dependent losses within the power converter. For example, gate drive losses are generally proportional to switching frequency and depend on the particular manufacturing run of power switches employed therein. Thus, altering the switching frequency for a particular application using a table constructed according to the principles of the present invention, considering manufacturing data, actual load current, and other measured or sensed variables can result in improved power conversion efficiency within a predetermined set of operating constraints that may be signaled from an external source. A test set can be readily constructed, as is well known in the art, to vary switching frequency and observe the effect on power conversion efficiency. Entries are then made in the table to represent preferable switching frequencies. Static efficiency optimization approaches of the prior art that use a predetermined curve or other fixed approach do not advantageously achieve the benefits of improved efficiency with greater flexibility to respond to additional data as described herein.

A lookup table-based optimization procedure may be the most economical and effective method for many practical applications. Optimization would be limited to discrete ranges using preprogrammed values. A power converter would only enter an optimization state after sufficient time at a given operating point. A few discrete power states can be fully characterized during design to ensure reliability. The alternative of a continuous search algorithm would be eliminated by a table-based procedure. A continuous search algorithm can lead to a continuing state of “hunting.” The complex, nonlinear nature of the optimization problem may make such continuous search algorithms non-deterministic and unreliable in a practical application.

Turning now to FIG. 6, illustrated is an embodiment of a functional representation to improve power conversion efficiency constructed according to the principles of the present invention by determining a controllable parameter such as an internal bus voltage setpoint V_(bus) _(—) _(setpoint) of the power converter. An exemplary function is represented dependent on load current I_(load), operating temperature, data acquired after a manufacturing step, and data from an external source. The exemplary functional dependence illustrated in FIG. 6 for the internal bus voltage setpoint V_(bus) _(—) _(setpoint) for an internal bus voltage is: V _(bus) _(—) _(setpoint)=380+0.1·I _(load)−0.2·Temp+V _(setup)+10·V _(ext), where “I_(load)” represents a sensed power converter load current, “Temp” represents a sensed temperature using a thermistor or other temperature sensing element for a location in or about the power converter, “V_(setup)” represents a correction constant obtained from a test set after a manufacturing step, and “V_(ext)” represents a signal from an external source that might assume the values 0 and 1 to indicate the presence or absence of a paralleled power converter (see, e.g., FIG. 3 and the related description therefor). A constant “380” is a nominal number to describe the internal bus voltage setpoint V_(bus) _(—) _(setpoint). Other functional relationships including combinations of curve fits or other algorithmic relationships can be used within the broad scope of the present invention to meet the needs of a particular application. The controller 311 illustrated in FIG. 3 may use the internal bus voltage setpoint V_(bus) _(—) _(setpoint) as a reference voltage to control the internal bus voltage V_(bus) illustrated and described with reference to FIG. 3.

The functional representation for the internal bus voltage setpoint V_(bus) _(—) _(setpoint) to improve power conversion efficiency illustrated in FIG. 6 may be further enhanced by a power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state) based on a command from a power system controller (see FIG. 11 and the related description). An alternative functional representation for the internal bus voltage setpoint V_(bus) _(—) _(setpoint) may be used depending on the value of the power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state) indicating, for example, a command to reduce holdover time. An alternative functional representation may also be used for the internal bus voltage setpoint V_(bus) _(—) _(setpoint) if a power system employing the power converter anticipates a changing system operational state.

The use of tables, functional relationships, and curve fits to control an operating parameter for a controller of a power converter, constructed according to the principles of the present invention, can advantageously use the extensive data ordinarily acquired by test fixtures at various stages of the manufacturing process. The test fixtures are generally configured to sweep a broad range of operating conditions from a particular power converter, or from a representative power converter, or from power converters produced during a nm of representative power converters, and can even operate the power converter over a range of temperatures and for an extended period of time (e.g., during “burn in”). A test fixture can be arranged to operate a power converter over a range of trial values for a controllable parameter and to select a value that provides a preferable operating efficiency for the particular power converter under test. Thus, the efficiency program for a particular power converter can be tailored to represent the particular characteristics of the individual components from which the power converter is built. In a preferred arrangement, the test fixture is programmed to automatically search for the best value for the controllable parameter.

Recognizing that automatic test equipment (“ATE”) programs can be configured to perform thousands of tests on a representative unit, every reasonable combination of parameters can generally be practically searched for optimal efficiency over a given operating range. Reasonable combinations of parameters would be those that allow the power converter to maintain transient specifications for that operating range. These parameters can be determined, for example, using design equations and spreadsheets employing techniques well known in the art. The ATE data can then be reduced to a small lookup table containing the proper optimization parameters for the given operating range. Small variations in power converter test data would be expected over a production run. Optimizing every production power supply would be costly in certain production environments, providing diminishing returns for the effort. Nonetheless, it could be done if the resulting efficiency improvement would justify the effort. A practical option would be to sample power converters from all or selected production runs based on operating experience.

It is recognized that the timescale for the response of a controller to different internal and external stimuli can preferably be different. For example, the voltage level of an internal bus, which generally depends on charging and discharging a capacitor, might be practically changed over a period of hundreds of milliseconds, or even seconds, whereas the switching frequency of a power conversion stage or the timing delay between power switch conduction intervals can be readily changed on a much faster time scale, ultimately on a cycle-by-cycle basis. It may even be inappropriate to substantially change operating parameters such as an internal bus voltage level over intervals of time shorter than several seconds. Some internal operating characteristics or parameters would inherently change or would be inherently varied over a relatively long period, such as the input current of an ac front end, compared to other time scales within a power converter, and require a period of time to sense or alter an average or peak value. The internal parameters may be monitored over a longer time interval before the controller responds to a change in an internal operating characteristic or an output characteristic to augment power conversion efficiency.

Thus, for example, a controller may control an internal operating characteristic of a power converter in a step-by-step manner during an efficiency enhancement (e.g., optimization) process on a time scale substantially different from a time scale for controlling the duty cycle of the power converter. A parameter can be controlled on a slow timescale by using a digital representation of a low pass filter to retard changes in a parameter. An exemplary equation representing a low pass filter implemented over discrete time steps is: V _(bus,n)=(1−τ)·V _(bus,n-1) +τ·V _(bus,desired) where “V_(bus,n)” represents a filtered bus reference voltage at time step “n” to control an internal bus voltage on a slow time scale, “τ” represents a parameter that sets the time scale for the filtering process, “V_(bus,n-1)” represents the filtered bus reference voltage at the previous time step “n−1,” and “V_(bus,desired)” represents a desired, optimized bus voltage produced by a functional relationship or a table as described hereinabove.

In a related embodiment, a controller for a power converter may enhance (e.g., optimize) the operating efficiency (or other desirable parameter) of the power converter in response to a sensed or signaled internal operating characteristic and/or an output characteristic, using parameters measured on a representative power converter. For example, a multidimensional table or other functional representation of a value to control an internal operating characteristic or an output characteristic of the power converter could be derived from testing one or more representative power converters, as opposed to testing the actual power converter to be controlled. Multidimensional inputs to such a table or other functional representation may include, without limitation, signals representing an internal operating characteristic, an output operating characteristic, a power converter parameter measured during a test or characterization phase, and/or a signal representing an environmental parameter.

During a typical power converter product development process, a product design may proceed through several stages, for example, prototyping, pilot (or small volume) production, characterization and/or qualification testing, safety agency and electromagnetic interference (“EMI”) compliance testing, highly accelerated life testing, highly accelerated stress screening, and final release to production. During the characterization and/or qualification testing phase, one or more representative power supplies may be subjected to extensive testing to ensure compliance with the end specification. This testing may be automated by one or more racks of automated test equipment, enabling possibly many thousands of individual tests to be performed.

During an exemplary characterization testing stage, a representative power converter may be extensively tested over a wide variety of operating conditions. The characterization test may measure and collect thousands, or tens of thousands, of individual data points. These data may then be compiled into one or more multidimensional tables or other functional representation(s) and used by the control circuit to adjust an internal operating characteristic or an output characteristic of the power converter in order to operate the power converter at or near an optimal efficiency for a given set of conditions, while still enabling the power converter to meet its required specification. The characterization testing may also be repeated after a new manufacturing run to characterize the currently manufactured product.

Turning now to FIG. 7, illustrated is a block diagram of an embodiment of a power converter constructed according to the principles of the present invention. In the exemplary embodiment illustrated in FIG. 7, a block diagram of an ac input, power factor correction, and dc output power converter is depicted. The power converter operates from a power source providing 85 to 264 V ac input, and provides outputs of +12V and 3.3 VSB (a standby voltage). The power converter also provides output signals PS_ON and POK indicating, respectively, that the power converter is turned on and power is “OK,” as well as other “communications” signals typically provided between a power converter and a host system. It is readily understood by those skilled in the art that there are many ways to design an ac-to-dc power converter, and correspondingly there are many possible block diagrams that could suitably depict an exemplary power converter. It is also understood that the spirit and scope of the present invention is not limited to ac-to-dc power converters, but may encompass any type of power converter, including ac and/or dc input, as well as ac and/or dc output. Multiple input and/or multiple output power converters are also within the spirit and scope of the present invention.

FIG. 7 illustrates many of the constituent blocks of a power converter that may be controlled, as well as many of the internal nodes that may be measured and/or controlled, to improve operating efficiency. For example, a switching frequency of the boost field-effect transistors (“FETs”), and/or the bridge, may be adjusted based on operating conditions and/or on a system operational state to improve efficiency. Additionally, the voltage on the 400V bus may be adjusted, or the timing between bridge switches and a synchronous rectifier device (“sync rect”) may be adjusted.

Turning now to FIG. 8, illustrated is a block diagram of an embodiment of a power converter (e.g., an ac-to-dc power converter) constructed according to the principles of the present invention and demonstrating in more detail possible control and alarm circuit connections. These control and alarm circuits may be realized using dedicated firmware-driven microcontrollers, digital control integrated circuits, application specific integrated circuits, field-programmable gate arrays, or any suitable electronic circuitry. The power factor correction (“PFC”) control and primary alarm blocks (part of the primary control) of FIG. 8 illustrate some of the many internal nodes and circuits that may be measured and controlled. For example, the primary controller may monitor the input line voltage, frequency, and current, etc. It may also monitor the PFC output bus voltage (shown here as the 400V bus, although the bus voltage may be controlled to other voltage levels). The primary controller may control the PFC boost power switches using a variety of control techniques, including fixed and variable frequency, continuous current mode, discontinuous current mode, or critically continuous inductor current, to name but a few. The power converter could also employ additional components to achieve, for example, soft switching, with the controller capable of measuring and/or altering operating parameters affecting these additional components. The primary controller may also be capable of communicating with a secondary controller, and this communication may be bidirectional.

The secondary controller, including the pulse-width modulation (“PWM”) control and alarm circuits, may monitor and control the parameters shown in FIG. 8, as well as others not shown. The secondary control can thus be used to control, among other things, switching frequency, operating mode, output voltage, timing relationships, etc. The secondary control may advantageously also enable or disable the operation of individual power switches (or banks of power switches) to improve power conversion efficiency. The illustrated embodiment of FIG. 8 also shows a means of communication allowing the power converter to communicate with a wide variety of devices including, but not limited to, a host processor, one or more pieces of automated test equipment, or another power converter. The communication protocol in the illustrated embodiment is a wired I²C bus, but could be realized with any suitable communication means or protocol, including wired and wireless, optical, radio frequency, etc. Additionally, the communications means need not be restricted to the secondary side, but may be located on the primary side, or may be on both primary and secondary sides.

Turning now to FIGS. 9A thru 9F, illustrated are examples of how power converter efficiency can vary as a function of operating conditions and operating environment in accordance with the principles of the present invention. The curves in FIGS. 9A thru 9F are merely illustrative of a few of the parameters or environmental conditions affecting power conversion efficiency, and are by no means meant to be exhaustive. In addition, the curve shapes and variations illustrated in FIGS. 9A thru 9F are meant for illustrative purposes only. The efficiency of different power converter designs may vary in a manner different from the exemplary curves.

In FIG. 9A, the efficiency of the PFC section is illustrated as a function of both output power and input line voltage. In FIGS. 9A thru 9F, the arrows point in the direction of an increasing parameter. In FIG. 9B, the efficiency of the dc-to-dc section is illustrated as a function of both output power and bus voltage. In FIG. 9C, the efficiency of the PFC section is illustrated as a function of both output power and switching frequency at a single line voltage. A family of such curves could be generated at different ac line voltages. In FIG. 9D, the efficiency of the dc-to-dc section is illustrated as a function of both output power and switching frequency at a single bus voltage. A family of such curves could be generated at different dc bus voltages. In FIG. 9E, the efficiency of the power converter (PFC plus dc-to-dc sections) is illustrated as a function of both output power and bus voltage at a single line voltage. A family of such curves could be generated at different ac line voltages. Lastly, in FIG. 9F, the efficiency of the power converter (PFC plus dc-to-dc sections) is illustrated as a function of both output power and the timing delay between the bridge and synchronous rectifier switches, at a single line voltage. A family of such curves could be generated at different ac line voltages. Clearly, many other relationships could be measured for their effect on power converter efficiency including, but not limited to, temperature (internal and/or external), altitude, fan speed, number of power switching devices enabled, etc.

The number of different relationships that could be measured and data points collected is limited only by the ingenuity of the test engineer, time, and data memory resources. Over many such projects, an engineer may learn that certain relationship data has more of an impact on efficiency than others, and may learn how to intelligently limit the number of tests performed and data points collected to only those relationships having the greatest effect on efficiency.

Once the data is collected on one or more representative power converters, multidimensional data table(s) or other functional representation(s) may be stored into the internal control memory of the power converter for use during operation. This stored data could include, for example, a look-up table, an algorithm, or any other suitable method of converting test data into an actionable control parameter. For example, assume an exemplary power converter constructed according to the principles of the present invention was operating in a server, perhaps in a data center. The exemplary power converter may sense one or more environmental and operating conditions including a system operational state. The power converter may determine that it is operating at 20% load, at 120V ac input at 59.9 Hz, with an inlet ambient temperature of 35° C. (other parameters could also be measured), and that the power system is operating at full operational performance. The primary and/or secondary controller(s) may then access a stored look-up table that specifies, for example, the proper switching frequency, bus voltage operating conditions, the number of interleaved phases to enable, and switch timing relationships in order to improve or optimize efficiency. The controllers may be programmed to wait for a predetermined amount of time at a given operating condition before making any adjustment. This type of delay could allow the power converter to avoid making an unnecessarily large number of adjustments.

It may be advantageous to limit the range of possible adjustments to only those values that allow the power converter to remain within specified operating requirements during any operating condition specified in a requirements document. It may also be advantageous to limit the range of possible adjustments to only those values that ensure that the components of the power converter do not exceed maximum stress levels, thereby improving reliability and reducing component or power converter failures. For example, a requirements document for a power converter may specify operation under a number of transient conditions, such as output load transients, input transients, brown-out conditions, line drop-out conditions, temperature transients, etc.

Turning now to FIG. 10, illustrated is an ac input voltage waveform including an exemplary input line voltage dropout transient, showing time histories of possible internal bus voltages in accordance with the principles of the present invention. The FIGURE shows time histories of possible internal bus voltages, and an ac input voltage waveform with a drop-out period 1003 during which no ac input voltage is present. Illustrated for the internal bus voltages is a portion in which the slope 1001 of the internal bus voltage is load dependent. Also illustrated in the FIGURE is a bus undervoltage limit 1002. Power converters are often required to continue to provide output power for a period of time with the ac input voltage at or near zero. This time is typically referred to as the holdup time. When the input line voltage drops out, the dc-to-dc power converter section (see, e.g., FIG. 3) will continue to operate, pulling energy from the holdup capacitors, thereby reducing the voltage on the bus (designated V_(bus) in FIG. 3). The bus voltage will continue to fall until the line voltage is restored. Note that the slope of the bus voltage will be steeper at a higher output load current. If the bus voltage is allowed to reduce below an under voltage limit, the dc-to-dc power converter will not be able to support the load and maintain regulation, thereby resulting in an out-of-specification condition (e.g., for a particular system operational state). If the exemplary power converter of FIG. 10 is operating at Bus Voltage 1, the power converter can operate within specification, but may be operating at a lower efficiency than desired. If, however, the power converter adjusted its bus voltage to Bus Voltage 2 in an effort to improve efficiency, the bus voltage will dip below the undervoltage limit before the end of the drop-out period. Thus, Bus Voltage 1 has more than adequate margin for the load, but efficiency may not be optimized. Bus Voltage 2 may provide higher efficiency, but cannot meet the dropout specification. Bus Voltage 3 may be the most efficient operating point for which operating specifications can be maintained. The power supply system would be crafted to select Bus Voltage 3.

It should ordinarily be assumed that a maximum specification power transient can occur at any time during power supply operation without warning. This assumption clearly limits opportunities for optimization. A given server with a particular configuration of memory, disk drives, etc., will have a maximum load capability, which is typically less than the power supply's maximum load specification. This maximum load could be characterized at system boot up and communicated to the power supply, then stored, for example, in a flash memory. The power supply control system could add margin to the maximum load number and thus know the maximum possible load for the server to which it is coupled. This information can then be used to compute the optimization parameters such that specification conformance is maintained.

Thus, a power converter constructed according to the principles of the present invention may sense a variety of input/output operating parameters and calculate, for example, the minimum (or a safe) bus voltage that could both improve efficiency and ensure that the power converter can maintain the proper holdup time through a line dropout event. This is illustrated by Bus Voltage 3 in FIG. 10. For a given output load condition, adjusting the bus voltage to Bus Voltage 3 both improves efficiency and ensures compliance with the specification. Thus, the exemplary power converter is capable of using a multidimensional data table(s) or other functional representation(s), in conjunction with sensed operating parameters, to determine an operating point with improved efficiency that also allows the power converter to maintain compliance with a specification.

There are many examples where adjustments to improve efficiency while maintaining compliance with a specification will require a power converter to make intelligent adjustments, possibly combining data stored in a multidimensional data table(s) or other functional representation(s) with sensed operating parameters in the adjustment computation. One such example concerns switching frequency adjustments. It may be advantageous to reduce a switching frequency under, for example, lighter output load conditions. However, if the load were to suddenly increase, the power converter controller should ensure that the magnetic components will not be detrimentally affected (by possibly saturating) at the combination of a higher load condition and a lower frequency operating condition, prior to the controller adjusting the switching frequency to a level more appropriate with the new load condition. Thus, a power system controller may consider a system operational state when altering a power converter switching frequency.

Another example can be found in switch timing adjustments, illustrated in FIG. 9F. The improved switch timing is often dependent on input or output current levels. For example, switch timing to improve efficiency at a lighter load may result in cross conduction at heavier loads (or vice versa), thereby causing a detrimental operation and possible failure of the power converter.

Turning now to FIG. 11, illustrated is a block diagram of an embodiment of a power system coupled to loads and including power converters controlled by a power system controller constructed according to the principles of the present invention. The loads are represented by a plurality of servers (designated “SVR_1 . . . SVR_n” and also referred to as “SVR”) powered by respective power converters (designated “PU_1 . . . PU_n” and also referred to as “PU”) over respective power buses (designated “PB 1 . . . PB n” and also referred to as “PB”). Each server SVR may be individually coupled to a respective power converter PU for its power source as illustrated herein, or may be coupled to more than one power converter PU and powered in a redundant manner to form multiple redundant power converters PU. The power system controller (designated “PSC”) may also be powered by one of the illustrated power converters PU, or by another power converter not shown.

The power converters PU are coupled to the power system controller PSC over respective power converter communication buses (designated “PCBUS_1 . . . PCBUS_n” and also referred to as “PCBUS”) that conduct signals therebetween to communicate requests for a power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state) from the power system controller PSC to a power converter PU. The power system controller PSC may also be coupled over a bus (designated “BUS_env”) to a circuit element (not shown) signaling an environmental parameter such as a component temperature. In addition, the power system controller PSC may be coupled over a bus (designated “BUS_test”) to a signal source such as a manufacturing test set that provides a power converter parameter measured after a manufacturing step. The power system controller PSC receives signals representing a power converter status PC_(status) from the power converters PU over the respective power converter communication buses PCBUS and transmits commands thereover for the power converter operational states PC_(op) _(—) _(state) to the power converters PU. The commands for the power converter PU to enter the power converter operational states PC_(op) _(—) _(state) can be used to enhance (e.g., optimize) an operational efficiency or reliability of the power converter PU and at a power system level.

An exemplary set of power converter operational states PC_(op) _(—) _(state) and an associated description thereof is illustrated in TABLE I below. A power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state) introduces an opportunity, which may be based on a signal received from a server SVR, to control an internal operating characteristic of a power converter PU, such as an internal bus voltage, a switching frequency, or altering a power conversion topological operation such as disabling (or reducing the effectiveness of) active power factor correction or altering the number of actively driven synchronous rectifiers. The power converter operational states PC_(op) _(—) _(state) indicate an operational condition beyond controlling an external characteristic such as an output voltage set point controlled by a VID signal. An example of a response to a signal indicating a power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state) from the power system controller PSC includes disabling (or setting in a standby mode) one of a plurality of redundant power converters PU during a low power condition, such as during a reduced software load sensed at a power system level, with or without changing an output characteristic such as an output voltage of the remaining power converters PU. A power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state) may be determined from a signal from a server SVR indicating a processor core state, a software load on the power system, or a level of power system criticality.

TABLE I Power Converter PC_(op) _(—) _(state) Operational State Power Converter Operational State Description 0 Fully Full power capability. All power converter components operational operational at full performance level 1 Reduced load Reduced internal bus voltage (possibly reducing holdover time). Switching frequency reduced. Switch timing optimized for lighter load. 2 Light load Elements of PC_(op-state1) plus active power factor correction control off or diminished, at least one synchronous rectifier switch disabled, and/or an interleaved phase disabled. Bus voltage reduction. 3 Very light Elements of PC_(op-state2) plus substantial bus voltage reduction. load Disable phases in PFC. 4 Reduced Elements of PC_(op-state3) plus temporarily disabling a power converter Redundancy in a redundant set, but power converter remaining in a standby condition. PFC disabled at high line. 5 Further Redundant supply shut down. PFC disabled at high line. capability reduction

The C-states corresponding to the PC_(op) _(—) _(states) are illustrated in TABLE II below for a representative system design. Resulting estimated power converter dissipation for a representative power converter design at 10% load is illustrated in the right column of TABLE II to illustrate the potential for dissipation reduction in a system constructed according to the principles of the present invention.

TABLE II Power converter Corresponding dissipation at PC_(op) _(—) _(state) C-State Comments 10% load 0 C0 Limited efficiency 75 W optimization. 1 C1 Moderate efficiency optimization. 73 W Transition back to PC_(op) _(—) _(state) = 0 in tens of microseconds. 2 C2 Moderate efficiency optimization. 71 W Transition back to PC_(op) _(—) _(state) = 0 in several ms. 3 C3 Good efficiency optimization. 58 W Transition back to PC_(op) _(—) _(state) = 0 in tens of ms. 4 C4 Maximum power savings with redundancy. 38 W Transition back to PC_(op) _(—) _(state) = 0 in 50 ms. 5 Deep C4 Maximum possible power savings. 19 W Transition back to PC_(op) _(—) _(state) = 0 in 100 ms.

Each power converter PU responds to a command for a power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state) by enhancing (e.g., optimizing) its operating efficiency under the requested power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state). The power system controller PSC may command different power converter operational states PC_(op) _(—) _(state) to different power converters PU in the power system. Thus, one power converter PU may be disabled, while the other power converters PU continue to operate under a light system load, preferably with a consideration of measured operating efficiencies of the particular power converters PU installed. In such manner, a higher operating efficiency can be achieved on a system-level basis than can be achieved in an environment without such system-level communication. Alternatively, the power system controller PCS may sequentially operate different power converters PU at different times to reduce the overall power system failure rate by reducing the operating time of individual power converters PU.

The servers SVR communicate with the power system controller PSC over respective server communication buses (designated “SVRBUS_1 . . . SVRBUS_n” and also referred to as “SVRBUS”) to communicate data to establish a system operational state with respect to the servers SVR. The data may include a processor P-state or C-state, a signal indicative of a level of system or power system functionality, and/or a signal anticipating a change in power system functionality. In a preferred embodiment, the various communication buses are serial data buses such as I²C buses (or any other suitable communication protocol). In an alternative embodiment, parallel buses can be used.

As mentioned above, the power system controller PSC receives signals representing a power converter status PC_(status) from the power converters PU over a respective power converter communication bus PCBUS. An exemplary set of power converter statuses PC_(status) is shown below in TABLE III with an associated description thereof. Additional (or fewer) status conditions could be used based on the needs of each system. For example, a power converter status flag setting of “1” may indicate an overheated condition for a power converter component, or a high level of ripple voltage on an internal circuit node, either event representing an out-of-specification or unanticipated operating condition for the power converter PU. A power converter status flag setting of “3” may indicate a load failure, wherein a load (e.g., server SVR) component draws a current beyond a rated value. The power system controller PSC may signal, as a consequence thereof, the need to replace a power converter PU, temporarily operate a power converter PU at a lower level of performance, or indicate a generally lower level of power system reliability. The power system controller PSC may employ power converter status data to enhance (e.g., optimize) power system operating efficiency on a power system-level basis.

TABLE III Power Converter PC_(status) Status Power Converter Status Description 0 Fully All power converter components operational Operational at a full performance level 1 Failure Likely Power converter operating with reduced operational capability 2 Failed Power converter failed 3 Overloaded Power converter unable to sustain an output voltage or current

In FIG. 11, the power system controller PSC is illustrated as a block separate from the servers SVR. In an alternative embodiment, the power system controller PSC may be constructed as an element of one or more servers SVR, or as an element of one or more of the power converters PU.

Turning now to FIG. 12, illustrated is a diagram of an embodiment of processor core states (“C-states”) in accordance with the principles of the present invention illustrated. In particular, the diagram illustrates ACPI C-states including an active state C0, idle states C1, C2, C3, C4 and a Deep state C4 including transition times between idle states. The processor idle states are generally scheduled at a system level, and it may be possible to signal the power supply prior to transitions into and out of the idle states. With as little as several milliseconds' notice, a power supply could prepare itself for a state transition. Such notification could allow a much deeper optimization of efficiency than would otherwise be possible. Switch timing, frequency, bus voltage, etc., could be changed prior to the idle state change to prepare for the transition in operating conditions. These parameter changes would be accomplished in a predictable, controlled fashion, thereby augmenting (e.g., maximizing) power supply and system reliability. Adjustment of power converter operating characteristics would generally be done slowly, waiting seconds or even minutes in a given operating state before enhancing (e.g., optimizing) parameters for efficiency.

Turning now to FIG. 13, illustrated is an exemplary state transition diagram for a power converter constructed according to the principles of the present invention. The diagram illustrates power converter operational states PC_(op) _(—) _(state) based on commands from a power system controller and the allowable transition times therebetween. For example, the transition from the first power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state1) to the fourth power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state4) is 5 milliseconds (“ms”) or less, wherein the reverse transition is 15 ms or less.

Transitions among the power converter operational states PC_(op) _(—) _(state) illustrated in FIG. 13 advantageously can be conditioned by the power system controller to control individual power converters to meet power system-level performance metrics. For example, a transition from the power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state0), a “fully operational” state, to the first power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state1), a “reduced load” state, may be performed in response to a system operational state requirement related to a processor core state signal indicating a transition of a processor core state from core state C0 to core state C1 or higher. The transitions may also be temporally conditioned. For example, persistent residence in the first power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state1) (e.g., for a time period greater than 0.5 seconds) may enable a transition to the fourth power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state4) (“reduced redundancy”). A transition to the fifth power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state5) (“idle”) may be enabled upon receipt of a power converter status of two PC_(status2) (“failed power converter”) and receipt of a system operational state such as a processor core state with a value greater than or equal to one. Logic enabling particular state transitions in an embodiment of the present invention based on a power converter status PC_(status) and on a system operational state can be readily constructed for a particular application.

Turning now to FIG. 14, illustrated is a graphical representation of efficiency improvement as a function of power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state) for a representative power converter (e.g., 1000 W power converter) constructed according to the principles of the present invention. The graphs illustrate power converter efficiency as a function of percent of load for the four states PC_(op) _(—) _(state)=0, 2, 3, and 4. As illustrated in the FIGURE, substantial efficiency improvement can be attained at light levels of power converter loading, particularly in the deeper idle states of the system. Power converter dissipation corresponding to the efficiency data illustrated in FIG. 14 is illustrated in FIG. 15.

Turning now to FIG. 16, illustrated is a graphical representation of efficiency improvement as a function of power converter operational state PC_(op) _(—) _(state) for a representative power system (e.g., 1000 W power converter system) including two power converters (e.g., 1000 W power converters) operating in parallel (“1+1”) to provide a high level of power system reliability constructed according to the principles of the present invention. The graphs illustrate power converter efficiency as a function of percent of load for the five states PC_(op) _(—) _(state)=0, 2, 3, 4, and 5. As illustrated in the FIGURE, substantial efficiency improvement again can be attained at light levels of power converter loading, particularly in the deeper idle states of the system. In normal system operation, wherein both power converters are fully operational, each power converter necessarily operates at less than 50% of its rated load capacity. Thus, in such system arrangements, substantial opportunities exist and can be accommodated in an advantageous embodiment for improvement in system power conversion efficiency during an idle state. Power converter dissipation corresponding to the efficiency data illustrated in FIG. 16 is illustrated in FIG. 17.

Thus, a controller for a power converter advantageously providing improved power conversion efficiency and improved power system reliability both at a unit and a system level has been introduced. A load is configured to provide a signal representing a system operational state to a power system controller coupled thereto. The power system controller in turn provides a command to the power converter to transition to or enter into a power converter operational state in accordance with the system operational state and a power converter status. The power system controller, therefore, induces the power converter to enter a power converter operational state. The power system controller may advantageously provide a command to the power converter to transition to or enter into a power converter topological state. The power converter includes a controller and a power switch configured to conduct for a duty cycle and to provide a regulated output characteristic at an output thereof. The power converter controller is configured to provide a signal to control the duty cycle of the power switch as a function of the output characteristic. The controller thereby regulates an internal operating characteristic of the power converter to improve an operating efficiency of the power converter depending on a value of a system operational state. Thus, by communicating operational data among the power converters of the power system in accordance with a power system controller, the operational efficiency of the power system and its reliability can be enhanced (e.g., optimized) at a level beyond that which can be achieved with more limited powering arrangements. The systems introduced herein may be implemented as hardware (including an integrated circuit such as an application specific integrated circuit), or may be implemented as software or firmware for execution by a computer processor. In particular, in the case of firmware or software, the exemplary embodiment can be provided as a computer program product including a computer readable storage structure embodying computer program code (i.e., software or firmware) thereon for execution by the computer processor.

Those skilled in the art should understand that the previously described embodiments of a controller for a power converter and related methods are submitted for illustrative purposes only. Those skilled in the art understand further that various changes, substitutions, and alterations can be made to the controller without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention in its broadest form. In addition, other embodiments capable of providing the advantages as described hereinabove are well within the broad scope of the present invention. While the controller and method have been described as providing advantages in the environment of a power converter, other applications therefor such as a controller for a motor or other electromechanical device are well within the broad scope of the present invention.

For a better understanding of power electronics, see “Principles of Power Electronics,” by J. G. Kassakian, M. F. Schlecht and G. C. Verghese, Addison-Wesley (1991). For a better understanding of semiconductor devices and processes, see “Fundamentals of III-V Devices,” by William Liu, John Wiley and Sons, (1999). For a better understanding of gallium arsenide processing, see “Modern GaAs Processing Methods,” by Ralph Williams, Artech House, Second Ed. (1990). The aforementioned references are incorporated herein by reference.

Also, although the present invention and its advantages have been described in detail, it should be understood that various changes, substitutions and alterations can be made herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. For example, many of the controllers discussed hereinabove can be implemented in different methodologies and replaced by other processes, or a combination thereof, to form the devices providing improved efficiency for a power converter as described herein.

Moreover, the scope of the present application is not intended to be limited to the particular embodiments of the process, machine, manufacture, composition of matter, means, methods and steps described in the specification. As one of ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate from the disclosure of the present invention, processes, machines, manufacture, compositions of matter, means, methods, or steps, presently existing or later to be developed, that perform substantially the same function or achieve substantially the same result as the corresponding embodiments described herein may be utilized according to the present invention. Accordingly, the appended claims are intended to include within their scope such processes, machines, manufacture, compositions of matter, means, methods, or steps. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A power converter coupled to a load, comprising: a power switch configured to conduct for a duty cycle to provide an output characteristic at an output thereof; and a power converter controller configured to receive a signal from said load indicating a system operational state of said load and control an internal operating characteristic of said power converter as a function of said signal.
 2. The power converter as recited in claim 1 wherein said power converter controller is further configured to provide another signal to control said duty cycle of said power switch as a function of said output characteristic and in accordance with said signal.
 3. The power converter as recited in claim 1 wherein said power converter controller is configured to adjust said internal operating characteristic over a period of time.
 4. The power converter as recited in claim 1 wherein said load is a processor and said system operational state is dependent on one of a core state and a performance state of said processor.
 5. The power converter as recited in claim 1 wherein said internal operating characteristic is selected from the group consisting of: a gate drive voltage level of said power switch of said power converter, a switching frequency of said power converter, and an internal direct current bus voltage of said power converter.
 6. A power system, comprising: a power system controller configured to provide a signal characterizing a power requirement of a processor system; and a power converter coupled to said processor system, comprising: a power switch configured to conduct for a duty cycle to provide an output characteristic at an output thereof, and a power converter controller configured to receive a signal from said power system controller to control an internal operating characteristic of said power converter as a function of said signal.
 7. The power system as recited in claim 6 wherein said power converter controller is further configured to provide another signal to control said duty cycle of said power switch as a function of said output characteristic and in accordance with said signal.
 8. The power system as recited in claim 6 wherein said power converter controller is configured to adjust said internal operating characteristic over a period of time.
 9. The power system as recited in claim 6 wherein said power requirement of a processor system is dependent on one of a core state and a performance state of said processor system.
 10. The power system as recited in claim 6 wherein said internal operating characteristic is selected from the group consisting of: a gate drive voltage level of said power switch of said power converter, a switching frequency of said power converter, and an internal direct current bus voltage of said power converter.
 11. A power system, comprising: a power system controller configured to enable operation of components of a processor system to establish a state of power drain thereof, said power system controller configured to provide a signal to identify operation of said processor system in said state of power drain; and a power converter, coupled to said processor system, comprising a power converter controller configured to receive said signal from said power system controller, to sense a power level of said state of power drain in response to said signal, and to control an internal operating characteristic of said power converter as a function of said power level.
 12. The power system as recited in claim 11 wherein said power converter further comprises a power switch configured to conduct for a duty cycle to provide an output characteristic at an output thereof, said power converter controller further configured to control said duty cycle of said power switch dependent on said output characteristic and in accordance with said power level.
 13. The power system as recited in claim 11 wherein said signal is provided upon startup of said processor system.
 14. The power system as recited in claim 11 wherein said power converter controller is configured to adjust said internal operating characteristic over a period of time.
 15. The power system as recited in claim 11 wherein said internal operating characteristic is selected from the group consisting of: a gate drive voltage level of a power switch of said power converter, a switching frequency of said power converter, and an internal direct current bus voltage of said power converter.
 16. A method of operating a power system, comprising: enabling operation of components of a processor system to establish a state of power drain thereof; providing a signal to identify operation of said processor system in said state of power drain; sensing a power level of said state of power drain in response to said signal; and controlling an internal operating characteristic of a power converter as a function of said power level.
 17. The method as recited in claim 16, further comprising: inducing a power switch of said power converter to conduct for a duty cycle to provide an output characteristic at an output thereof; and controlling said duty cycle of said power switch dependent on said output characteristic and in accordance with said power level.
 18. The method as recited in claim 16 wherein said signal is provided upon startup of said processor system.
 19. The method as recited in claim 16 wherein said controlling said internal operating characteristic comprises occurs over a period of time.
 20. The method as recited in claim 16 wherein said internal operating characteristic is selected from the group consisting of: a gate drive voltage level of a power switch of said power converter, a switching frequency of said power converter, and an internal direct current bus voltage of said power converter. 